Training DNN IoT Applications for Deployment on Analog NVM Crossbars

To address the reconfigurability versus full-custom periphery design, and its dependence on the weights/activation precision, we have developed a framework to aid mapping the DNN to the NVM hardware at training time. The main idea behind it is the use of hard-constraints when computing forward and back-propagation passes. These constraints, related to the HW capabilities, impose the precision used on the quantization of each layer, and guarantee that the weight, bias and activation values that each layer can have are shared across the NN. This methodology allows, after the training is finished, to map each hidden layer $`L_i`$ to uniform HW blocks sharing:

• a single DAC/ADC design performing $`\mathcal{V}()`$ / $`act()`$

• a single weight-to-conductance mapping function $`f()`$

• a global set of activation values $`Y_g = [y_0, y_1]`$

• a global set of input values $`X_g = [x_0, x_1]`$

• a global set of weight values $`W_g = [w_0, w_1]`$

• a global set of bias values $`B_g = [b_0, b_1]`$.

Being the crossbar behavior defined by

\begin{align}
    i_{ij} &= \sum v_{ik} g_{ikj} + b_{ij} \\
    % v_{ik} &= to\_v(x_{ik}) \\
    v_{ik} &= \mathcal{V}(x_{ik}) \\ % (x_{ik}) \\
    g_{ikj} &= f(w_{ikj}) \\
    y_{ij} &= act(i_{ij}),
\end{align}

and every system variable within the sets $`Y_g, X_g, W_g`$ and $`B_g`$, every DAC/ADC performing $`\mathcal{V}()`$ and $`act()`$ will share design and can potentially be reused. To achieve the desired behavior we need to ensure at training time that the following equations are met for each hidden layer $`L_i`$ present in the NN:

\begin{align}
 Y_i &= \{y_{ij}\}, y_{ij} \in [y_0, y_1] \\
 X_i &= \{x_{ik}\}, x_{ik} \in [x_0, x_1] \\
 W_i &= \{w_{ikj}\}, w_{ikj} \in [w_0, w_1] \\
 B_i &= \{b_{ij}\}, b_{ij} \in [b_0, b_1].
\end{align}

Commonly, the output layer activation (sigmoid, softmax) does not match the hidden layers activation. Therefore for the DNN to learn the output layer should be quantized using an independent set of values $`Y_o, X_o, W_o, B_o`$ that may or not match $`Y_g, X_g, W_g, B_g`$. Consequently, the output layer is the only layer that once mapped to the crossbar requires full-custom periphery.

HW Aware Graph Definition

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The NN graphs are generated by Tensorflow Keras libraries. In order to perform the HW-aware training, elements controlling the quantization, accumulation clippings, and additional losses, are added to the graph. Figure 1 describes these additional elements, denoted as global variables. For this purpose, the global variable control blocks manage the definition, updating and later propagation of the global variables. A global variable is a variable used to compute a global set of values $`V_g`$ composed of the previously introduced $`Y_g, X_g, W_g, B_g`$ or others. Custom regularizer blocks may also be added to help the training to converge when additional objectives are present.

HW Aware NN Training

Differentiable Architecture and Variables Updating During Training

Each global variable can be non-updated during training, –fixing the value of the corresponding global set in $`V_g`$– or dynamically controlled using the related global variable control. If fixed, a design space exploration is required in order to find the best set of global variable hyperparameters for the given problem. On the contrary, we propose the use of a Differentiable Architecture (DA) to automatically find the best set of global variable values using the back-propagation. In order to do that, we make use of DA to explore the NN design space. To achieve it, we define the global variables as a function of each layer characteristics –mean, max, min, deviations, etc. If complying with DA requirements, the global control elements automatically update the related variables descending through the gradient computed in the back-propagation stage. On the contrary, should a specific variable not be directly computable by the gradient descent, it would be updated in a later step as depicted in algorithm [alg:darts].

We also propose the use of DA on the definition of inference networks that target extremely low precision layers (i.e. $`2`$ bit weights and $`2-4`$ bits in activations), to explore the design space, and to find the most suitable activation functions to be shared across the network hidden layers. In Section 12 experiments we explore the use (globally, in every hidden layer) of a traditional relu versus a customized tanh defined as $`tanh(x - th_g)`$. Our NN training is able to choose the most appropriate activation, as well as to find the optimal parameter $`th_g`$. The parameter $`th_g`$ is automatically computed through gradient descent. However, to determine which kind of activation to use, we first define the continuous activations design space as

\begin{equation}
act(x) = a_0 relu(x) + a_1 tanh(x - th_g),
\end{equation}

where $`\{a_i\} = \{a_0, a_1\} = A_g`$. The selected activation $`a_s`$ is obtained after applying softmax function on $`A_g`$:

\begin{equation}
a_s = softmax( A_g ),
\end{equation}

which forces either $`a_0`$ or $`a_1`$ to a $`0`$ value once the training converges .

Loss Definition

As introduced before, additional objectives/constraints related to the final HW characteristics may lead to non convergence issues (see Section 4.3). In order to help the convergence towards a valid solution, we introduce extra $`\mathcal{L}_C`$ terms in the loss computation that may depend on the training step. The final loss $`\mathcal{L}_F`$ is then defined as

\begin{equation}
\mathcal{L}_F = \mathcal{L} + \mathcal{L}_{L2} + \mathcal{L}_{L1} + \mathcal{L}_{C},
\end{equation}

where $`\mathcal{L}`$ refers the standard training loss, $`\{\mathcal{L}_{L1}, \mathcal{L}_{L2}\}`$ refer the standard $`L1`$ and $`L2`$ regularization losses, and $`\mathcal{L}_C`$ is the custom penalization. An example of this particular regularization terms may refer the penalization of weight values beyond a threshold $`W_T`$ after training step $`N`$. This loss term can be formulated as

\begin{equation}
\mathcal{L}_C = \alpha_C \sum_{w} max(W-W_T, 0) HV(step - N)
\label{eq:loss_c}
\end{equation}

where $`\alpha_C`$ is a preset constant and $`HV`$ the Heaviside function. If the training would still provide weights whose values surpass $`W_T`$, $`HV`$ function can be substituted by a non clipped function $`relu(step-N)`$. In particular, this $`\mathcal{L}_C`$ function was used in the unipolarity experiments located at Section 12.

Implemented Quantization Scheme

The implemented quantization stage takes as input a random tensor $`T = \{t_t\}, t_t \in \mathbb{R}`$ and projects it to the quantized space $`Q = \{q_{q+}, q_{q-}\}`$, where $`q_{q+} = \alpha_Q 2^{q}`$, $`q_{q-} = -\alpha_Q 2^{q}`$, and $`\alpha \in \mathbb{R}`$. Therefore the projection is denoted as $`q(T) = T_q`$, where $`T_q = \{t_q\}, t_q \in Q`$. For its implementation we use fake_quant operations computing straight through estimator as the quantization scheme, which provides us with the uniformly distributed $`Q`$ set, always including $`0`$. However, the quantization nodes shown in Figure 1 allow the use of non-uniform quantization schemes. The definition of the quantized space $`Q`$ gets determined by the minimum and maximum values given by the global variables $`V_g`$.

Algorithm [alg:darts] can consider either $`max/min`$ functions or stochastic quantization schemes . Similarly, the quantization stage is dynamically activated/deactivated using the global variable $`do_Q \in {0, 1}`$, with could be easily substituted to support incremental approaches . In particular, and as shown in Section 4.3, the use of alpha-blending scheme proves useful when the weight precision is very limited.

Unipolar Weight Matrices Quantized Training

Mapping positive/negative weights to the same crossbar involve double the crossbar resources and introducing additional periphery. Using the proposed training scheme we can restrict further the characteristics of the DNN graph obtaining unipolar weight matrices, by redefining some global variables as

\begin{equation}
W_g  \in [0, w_1]
\end{equation}

and introducing the $`\mathcal{L}_C`$ function defined by Equation [eq:loss_c].

Moreover, for certain activations (relu, tanh, etc.) the maximum and/or minimum values are already known, and so the sets of parameters in $`V_g`$ can be constrained even further. These maximum and minimum values can easily be mapped to specific parameters in the activation function circuit interfacing the crossbar . Finally, in cases where weights precision is very limited (i.e. $`2`$ bits), additional loss terms as $`\mathcal{L}_C`$ gradually move weight distributions from a bipolar space to an only positive space, helping the training to converge.

In summary, by applying the mechanisms described in Section 4, we open the possibility of obtaining NN graphs only containing unipolar weights.