The Tomaraho Conception of the Sky

The small community of the Tomaraho, an ethnic group culturally derived from the Zamucos, became known in the South American and world anthropological scenario in recent times. This group, far from the banks of the Paraguay river, remained concealed from organized modern societies for many years. Like any other groups of people in close contact with nature, the Tomaraho developed a profound and rich world view which parallels other more widely researched aboriginal cultures as well as showing distinctive features of their own. This is also apparent in their imagery of the sky and of the characters that are closely connected with the celestial sphere. This paper is based on the lengthy anthropological studies of G. Sequera. We have recently undertaken a project to carry out a detailed analysis of the different astronomical elements present in the imagined sky of the Tomaraho and other Chamacoco ethnic groups. We will briefly review some aspects of this aboriginal culture: places where they live, regions of influence in the past, their linguistic family, their living habits and how the advancement of civilization affected their culture and survival. We will later mention the fieldwork carried out for decades and some of the existing studies and publications. We will also make a brief description of the methodology of this work and special anthropological practices. Last but not least, we will focus on the Tomaraho conception of the sky as well as describe the research work we have been doing in recent times.

💡 Research Summary

The paper presents a comprehensive ethno‑astronomical study of the Tomaráho, a small ethnic group belonging to the larger Chamaco cultural complex in the Paraguayan Chaco. The authors begin by situating the Tomaráho historically: originally part of the Zamuco linguistic family, they suffered dispossession and forced labor at the hands of the Carlos Casado company and the Paraguayan state in the late 19th century. Despite this oppression, the community retained a rich oral tradition, which the first author, Guillermo Sequera, documented during extended field stays from 1987 to 1992.

Methodologically the research follows classic participant‑observation techniques inspired by Malinowski, combined with systematic linguistic transcription, myth collection, and direct astronomical observation. This interdisciplinary blend allows the authors to reconstruct the Tomaráho’s cosmology in both symbolic and empirical terms.

The Tomaráho envision the world as a flat disk called “hñymich.” Beneath this disk lies an aquatic underworld named “nio goroturr,” while above it float transparent hemispherical skies called “porrioho.” Within the porrioho the Milky Way appears as “iomyny” (the “way of souls”), and two distinct nebulae—large and small “Magellanic Clouds” (kajywysta and kajywyhrtá)—are identified. The Sun and Moon are personified as Deich and Xekulku, respectively, and Venus appears as Iohd le, mother of the stars.

Central to the Tomaráho universe is the cosmic tree, known as “kululte” or “cháro,” identified botanically as Chorisia insignis, a native Paraguayan tree. The tree’s roots connect to the watery underworld, its trunk supports the sky, and its branches link to the human realm, embodying the classic axis mundi motif. According to myth, the tree originally allowed free movement between earth and sky, but a widow named Dagylta, transformed into a beetle, gnawed the trunk until it fell. This cataclysm separated the heavens and the earth permanently, turned the sky into a thick gray layer, and transformed the fallen humans into the stars (porrebija). The narrative parallels other indigenous accounts, such as the Bushmen’s belief that stars are the first peoples.

Shamanic practice is tightly interwoven with this cosmology. Male and female shamans (konsaha or ahanak) experience visionary dreams called “chykéra,” which they translate into ritual songs (“teichu”) accompanied by rattles (osecha) and whistles (enereṭak). The interior of the rattles is painted with geometric motifs representing constellations, thereby turning the instruments into portable sky maps. These performances are not merely artistic; they constitute a mediated dialogue with celestial beings and reinforce communal identity.

The authors link the Tomaráho’s worldview to Eliade’s sacred‑profane dichotomy and to the universal axis‑mundi pattern found in many cultures, from Semang pygmies to ancient Near Eastern myth. By integrating ethnographic data, linguistic analysis, mythic structure, and astronomical identification, the paper offers a model for future comparative ethno‑astronomy research and underscores the importance of preserving such intangible heritage.